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Malta – Background Malta has a rich, varied and chequered history – from prehistoric origins to modern contemporary time. The “Malta Experience” is very similar to the “Jersey Experience”, namely Audio-Visual spectaculars charting the origin and history of both sets of Islands. The “Jersey Experience” has similarities to the “Malta Experience” which is held in a large auditorium to maximise the effects of sounds and colours of historic Malta. It is a kind of show to all that is Maltese and naturally has a number of daily opening times on every hour between 11:00 and 16:00 Monday to Friday. It is held in St Elmo Bastion, on Mediterranean Street in Valletta; their telephone number is +356 2124 3776. Their website is HTTP://WWW.THEMALTAEXPERIENCE.COM The “Audio-Visual spectacular uses state-of-the-art multivision technology to telescope 7000 years of turbulent change and drama into an unforgettable 45 minutes” so says the brochure, and goes on to say “…let the magic ‘experience’ unfold on the giant screen as sensational photography and a gripping commentary (in whatever language you choose) bring Malta’s history to life – from the mysteries of the Stone Age temples to the coming of the Romans and Arabs; the rule of the Knights to the indomitable wartime spirit that captured the imagination of the world”. The text of the brochure appears in several languages with more than 36 images, and on the back it has a map of Valletta, which makes finding some places easier than others. The Malta Experience is worth a visit. The quickest way around the three ‘mounts’ (tongues or spits of land stretching out into the bay, the ‘Grand Port’ (from the diagram on the Water Taxi brochure) is by boat. The Maltese archipelago has a reasonable road structure, but buses from the 1950s and 1960s take much longer to traverse the islands than do the Water Taxis (called a dghajsa; pl. dghajjes), most visitors have a base in the principal settled areas, and might want to use the water taxis for shopping trips or events that take place in settled areas. The bus Terminus is marked on the ‘Malta Experience’ brochure, situated outside of the fortified walls, the buses to all other parts of the islands start and finish at Valletta. The Water Taxi used to cost about 2 Maltese Liras (about 1.5 euro) before the January 2008 changeover from Lira to Euro, and takes just a few minutes (about 5 but who’s really counting!) to the ‘other side’ (Valletta) from Vittoriosa (Birgu, Caraffa Stores area) for example. Pick-ups and drop-offs for Valletta are next to the fish market ‘Pixkerija’ and next to the Marine Customs House. In Birgu the Water Taxis can be found along the waterfront before reaching the Caraffa Stores across the road from St Lawrence Parish Church (Birgu Wharf). The other pick-up and drop-off point is L’isla (Senglea) Waterfront (which faces Birgu) The Water Taxis were a common sight in the Grand Harbour during British control of the islands, and they often moved between the British Naval war ships. Further information on the Water Taxis and their history can be found in the book by Joseph Muscat (1999) titled “The Dghajsa and Other Traditional Maltese Boats” Fondazzjoni Patrimonju Malti. The Barklor or ‘dghajsaman’ of his boat will tell you lots of stories if you enquire about his boat and the history of the areas he ushers his passengers to and from. Than it is a steep flight up the hill with several sets of steps to deal with before arriving in the towns/settlements proper. The buildings protected by the fortress-like walls appear on the maps to be regimented. The ‘fortified’ areas helped repel invaders during Malta’s more warlike episodes in its past. On the tourist information bureau brochures almost all the buildings are shown as neat squares and rectangles set within the protected area that would have been defended during times of military conflicts and sea battles. “Places To Visit” And “Things To Do”:KALKARA Headland On a clear day (any day really!) you can see right across the water to Valletta, and over the open sea, and dream or contemplate quietly your place in the world. You can also see the large cruise liners sailing blissfully into the Grant Harbour/Port, unaware of the small creatures called humans sitting on the headland… This November sea planes were flying around the headlands and lots of white ghostlike cruise liners were in harbour, several being cleaned up and refurbished for winter cruises in the Cayman Islands or the Bahamas. THE GRAND HARBOUR AND PORT Self-explanatory really, used to be far more bustling then it is now; quiet backwater if you can say any harbour is a backwater. Great ramparts best viewed from ships passing by. Half a day or a full day boat trip will give you the feel of the formidable defences of the Islands. Some liken the Grand Harbour to an astounding living painting; I like the golden sandstone architecture, especially in the early morning or at dusk when the shadows return. BIRGU (It. Citta Vittoriosa) Fort St Angelo, the Maritime Museum, the Inquisitor’s Palace (museum), the Oratorio San Guzepp (museum containing La Vallette’s sword), the ‘Malta at War’ museum and shelters located at Couvre Porte and the Vittoriosa 1565 museum. L’ISLA (It. Citta Senglea or Citta Invicta) The Parish Church and the Bambina statue, the garden at Il-Gardjola Point that has excellent views, and any of the Waterfront cafes facing Birgu (check out the Tate Café-Bar, its not as expensive as some of the others along here; their meals are huge and enough to fill two hungry bellies; a good place to ‘share’ a meal!). BORMLA (It. Citta Cospicua) and the village of ZABBAR The Parish Church, St Helen’s Gate, Cottonera Lines, Margerita Lines and the Notre Dame Gate (also known as the Zabbar Gate, also known as the Bieb is-Sultan or Cottoner Gate); the village of Zabbar is the next settlement seen through the gate. From the drawing on the back of the Water Taxi brochure the highlights are pointed out and given numeric indicators. Also as can be seen from this reproduced old drawing, the extent of the fortified walls, suggesting that whatever was contained within was of strategic importance. Another brochure available from the tourist office or from the bus station information office is a holiday guide to the islands called “Going places by bus”, as are bus timetables “Malta Bus Routes 2007” for instance. The text on the Bus Timetable is very small indeed and not easily read without good adequate light and a magnifying glass; especially so in the evenings…. Otherwise it is quite concise. The next two brochures obtained from the various Tourist Bureaus around the Island (principally Valletta) is “A Walking Tour of the Cottonera” it encompasses the ‘three cities’ of Vittoriosa (Mlt. Birgu), Senglea (Mlt. L’Isla), and Conspicua (Mlt. Bormla). It provides few detailed street names but is quite adequate for the job as a quick reference, and provides quite a decent amount of information about some more of the places you might want to visit whilst on the Island of Malta. The second brochure well worth mentioning, is “Discover Cottonera” (can be obtained from the Military Museum in Birgu). This brochure is stuffed full of information, and its in colour too, so is easy on the tired eyes dazzled by the intensity of the Maltese sun…(but better studied quietly over a pint of lager or a cappocconi (a large cappuccino) under the shade at the Tate Café-Bar…well, you need half a table to spread it out properly…and the text is still the ubiquitous small font…. Another brochure worth getting hold of is “Discover the Three Cities” it provides A4 sections on Birgu, Bormla & Isla. But wherever you travel there is evidence of fortification everywhere you look. Architecturally Malta is very diverse and quite interesting, especially the old houses that date from 350 plus years ago – houses full of character, many with three or four levels with large roof spaces and spiral staircases – a regular feature in the old houses. Be wary when obtaining any map from the Tourist Office; many are out of date (and are hence free…). Its best to acquire a couple of decent maps and guide books before you leave the UK or Europe, depending on your interests – be it walking or driving, or whatever else takes your fancy; Malta is available for diving, archaeology, and beach holidays amongst others. There are many good guide books available (and some not-so-good ones); be discerning. Two Recommended Guide books are: “Travellers Malta & Gozo”, from Thomas Cook, and the twin-pack of map and book “The AA Map & Guide to Malta & Gozo: top 25 Sights” from the AA. ELSEWHERE – ‘TEMPLE’ SITES; Malta and Gozo Must-sees, you can get single entry tickets for each site, or better, get a combined one from the Museum of Archaeology (Heritage Malta) in Valletta; its cheaper. Also ‘hire’ the services of a local guide, like Margaret Frendo if you can; she will provide you with an archaeological background to the sites that date from the earliest colonisation back in those dim and distant times we call prehistory. Everywhere over the islands there is evidence for prehistoric architectures, badged megalithic. In every country where there are megalithic ruins there are still many inconsistencies with regards to what they were used for, how they were built and utilised. Many anomalies remain and the Maltese Archipelago is no exception. Visit them for yourself, do a bit of background reading and you’ll see what I mean! See elsewhere for more detailed information on the Archaeology of Malta. MISCELLANEOUS And now to gastronomic tips – do eat as much regional cuisine as possible; start your day with a pastry and a cappuccino (or Cappocconi [large cappuccino] if you’re particularly in need of a “decent” cup of coffee in the morning). The pastries are delicious, and generally the coffee is good – but do look around and try other café-bars because not all the coffee available is really good. If all else fails, buy yourself a double expresso hit. For a couple of Euros you can buy yourself loads of fresh vegetables – best get them as early as you can in the morning, because by 11:00 they wilt terribly. Also, try a fish market; fresh fish and meat is readily available from small mobile fishmongers who use battered trucks and call on the street for punters; the locals like these guys as they have a good chin-wag too, whilst buying their fish. There are quite a few small ‘hole-in-the-wall’ butchers shops around in the villages, and local bakers too. There are supermarkets too, if you’d rather spend all your money on Supermarket Sweeps. The pastries from local bakers are extremely reasonably priced. Best thing to do is, get up early, buy your Veg, chuck in the fridge with your tasty regional cheeses, got from the local Tuesday market (unmissable; you can buy anything from finches in cages to the usual car-boot items, but lots of snacky things like olives, bread, cheeses, nuts and fruits etc), your wines and beers. Then grab a pastry and eat it on the hoof before heading off to your favourite café-bar somewhere to while away a little of your time whilst savouring your coffee. The Maltese, allegedly, get up really early in the morning, and shut up shop from 13:00 until about 16:00; the pastries are gone by about 11:00-ish so get in there before they all disappear! This Section Contains Some Relevant (But Not All) Research Projects: The First Three Are University Research ProjectsProject OneResearch Project (University of Bristol) Simon Stoddart et al “ARCHAEOLOGY & COMPUTER SCIENCE: An Interactive Photo-Realistic Visualisation System for Archaeological Sites” Alan Chalmers, Simon Stoddart, Martin Belcher, Marc Day Introduction Evidence from the archaeological record yields clues as to how our ancestors lived. However, our perceptions and analyses of this data may be clouded by the lack of surviving structures or unmodified landscapes that can be used to put this evidence into better context. Recent developments in computer visualisation are providing powerful tools for modelling multi-dimensional aspects of the data gathered by archaeologists. Computer graphic techniques can be used to reconstruct and visualise features of a site which may otherwise be difficult to appreciate. This new perspective may enhance our understanding of the environments in which our ancestors lived. Although static images are useful for providing impressions of a site, far greater insight can be obtained by making it possible for the user to navigate through the three dimensional representation. This experience will be enhanced by the photo-realistic nature of the computer model including accurate illumination and the presence of environmental factors such as smoke, dust or fog. It is essential that such a navigation system is interactive, responding immediately to the operator's direction. By combining archaeology and computer science expertise it may be possible to achieve the three dimensional computer reconstruction and interactive photo-realistic visualisation of archaeological sites. Such a system will enable archaeologists to evaluate hypotheses concerning ritual performances, site utilisation, structure, contents and development of the area. Computer science aspects Three dimensional computer reconstructions of archaeological sites have existed for a number of years. These computer reconstructions may be viewed either as a series of static images, or as a precomputed video walkthrough, possibly within a multi-media presentation package. The user is thus presented with a fait accompli representation of a site. This single representation may impose a ``true'' vision of the past on the viewer creating a misleading impression of accuracy. The system being developed in Bristol is intended as a research tool to establish the architectural framework of a site in which activities took place and then to set varied hypothetical scenarios which require archaeological interpretation. In order to investigate the hypotheses concerning site utilisation and formation on the computer, the user needs to be able to alter scene parameters and view the results. The value of these results will be greatly enhanced if they are of photo-realistic quality and they are produced rapidly. Photo-realism In all image synthesis techniques, the fundamental step is computing the amount and nature of light from the three dimensional environment reaching the eye from any given direction. This computation is carried out by simulating the behaviour of light in the environment. This simulation should allow for the medium participation of light emitters such as flames, light absorbers such as soot clouds, and light scatterers such as dust or smoke. The illumination at any point in the environment can be determined by solution of the rendering equation. Unfortunately, the general form of this equation involves a complex integral over the entire environment and, as such, photo-realistic computer graphics techniques are only able to approximate the solution. Current methods, such as raytracing and radiosity, are extremely computationally complex. The particle tracing technique traces the path of photons as they are emitted from light sources and uses the reflected/refracted/emitted particle flux given by a large number of these particles as a measure of the illumination of the environment. By using Monte Carlo techniques to approximate the integral of the rendering equation, this model can accurately simulate the physical propagation of light, and can be used for complex scenes involving medium participation. Experience, based on sequential implementations of the particle tracing method, have shown that even for relatively simple environments the number of particles that have to be considered in the simulation can be of the order of a few hundred thousand. On the single processor machine this can amount to many minutes and even hours of computing time. The application of advanced parallel processing methods should allow the visualisation to be accomplished in real-time. Parallel Processing The paths of particles within the environment may be traced independently and the resultant fluxes used to model the global illumination, suggesting that the particle tracing method is particularly suitable for implementing in parallel. However, the method exhibits certain characteristics which complicate its solution on large multiprocessor systems, including: very large data requirements; variations in computational complexity associated with this data; and, the need for global communication. These issues must be effectively addressed by the parallel implementation if the desired system performance is to be achieved. Archaeological aspects Archaeological evidence and modern survey techniques form the foundation on which the visualisation system is developed. Accurate EDM and photogrammetric survey provide the architectural framework for the computer model of the existing site. The various stages of development of the sites can be determined by analysing the physical picture of the excavated record using archaeological dating and phasing techniques. Further information can be added from the antiquarian records of the monuments. These procedures will provide a set of structural scenarios into which different hypotheses of ritual and the interlinked question of lighting can be set. The interaction of the various elements for the visualisation of archaeological sites is shown below. System evaluation The archaeological visualisation system is being evaluated initially by considering prehistoric sites in Malta. In particular we are examining the large underground burial complex of Hal Saflieni and two other sites in close proximity, the Brochtorff Circle (a mortuary site) and the Ggantija Temple (a cult site) in Gozo, Malta. These sites are closely related as part of interlinked rituals of death and life. The partly underground Brochtorff Circle, currently under investigation by an Anglo-Maltese team, is situated near the above ground Ggantija Temple and there is a good understanding of the surrounding ritual landscape from a detailed field survey. Maltese sites: Early descriptions of the prehistoric monuments of Malta date back to the sixteenth century. The initial excavation of the sites in the nineteenth century left little record except for some paintings by the Maltese artist Brochtorff. Work in the 1960's, supported by the radiocarbon revolution, has established that these monuments are the oldest free-standing public stone buildings in the world. The current Anglo-Maltese project (principally comprising the Universities of Bristol, Cambridge and Malta) was begun in 1987 to investigate the establishment and demise of the Maltese temple building populations. The field work involves the excavation of the mortuary complex at the Brochtorff Circle and the comparison of this site with other key structures in the immediate area, including the Ggantija Temple.
Reconstructed interior, Ggantija Temple. The most detailed evidence of Malta's prehistory exists for the latest period of Tarxien (3000 - 2500 BC), just before the temples were abandoned. Archaeological techniques can be employed to reconstruct the various stages of construction and use of the temples giving a more dynamic perspective, based on "stills" taken at various stages of architectural change responding to the developing liturgy. By extrapolating all this information, it will be possible to reconstruct the monuments as they may have appeared during any particular chronological period. Hypotheses Maltese island society supported some of the most elaborate ritual complexes in the contemporary prehistoric world between 3000 and 2500 BC. These complexes provide excellent evidence for the physical setting of highly developed and structured rituals. On this basis, a series of clear hypotheses for the configuration of ritual performance can be constructed readily, but which can only be tested through exhaustive three dimensional analysis. The temples of Malta have major constraints of three dimensional space whose implications have so far only been tentatively explored in two dimensions. Numerous artefacts have been recovered during the excavations of mortuary sites and temples alike and the location of these ritual artefacts provide some clues as to the organisation of liturgy within the architectural space delimited by the temples. Hypotheses on the rituals can be divided into two areas. Firstly, that ``priests'' and ``audience'' were separated from each other in the temples. According to this hypothesis, the audience ranged in the courtyard area outside the facade of the temple and visible priests were positioned at the end of a rising line of sight towards the main altar. This simple division appears to have been absent in the mortuary sites. Secondly, that priests performed private activities partly out of sight of the main audience. This appears to be the dominant arrangement in mortuary sites and was possible in a subsidiary form at temple sites. The temple architecture is so organised that there are secondary lines of sight across the central axis into adjoining apses. An example which appears to support this second hypothesis, is the discovery in one side apse of a frieze of probably male animals, with a rope tether hole placed strategically nearby and, in the facing apse, an altar with a recess in which animal bones and a knife were found in situ.
Reconstructed interior of the Hypogium, Malta. The intervisibility and spatial interaction of the participating audience and various priests can only be assessed through alternative reconstructions of the contemporary architecture, ritual furniture and lithurgical artefacts. By accomplishing this in addition to the interactive visualisation will allow the practicality of the ritual hypotheses to be tested. Summary A computer visualisation system can provide a representation of an archaeological site at any stage in its development. This is certainly advantageous from the point of view of tourism, as the computer images can help reduce pressure on archaeological monuments. However, as a research tool, the user must be able to alter the parameters of such a system to prevent the single ``true'' image creating an impression of misleading accuracy. The system under development in Bristol will allow archaeologists to interactively manipulate parameters and then view photo-realistic images of site reconstructions. This will enable hypotheses concerning site formation and utilisation to be investigated. To demonstrate the efficacy of the approach, this project initially is exploiting recent archaeological evidence and detailed photogrammetric survey data to reconstruct and visualise prehistoric sites in Malta. Data is also being accumulated currently to extend the scope of the system to include heritage sites in India. We would welcome collaboration with any group that may be interested in extending INSITE to their area of investigation. AcknowledgementsWe would like to thank the British Councils in Malta and Bombay for their support of this project. References Additional material on this and related topics may be obtained from:1. Chalmers A.G., Gregory S. "Constructing Minimum Path Configurations for Multiprocessor Systems". Parallel Computing, vol 19, no 3, pp 343-355, March 1993. 2. Chalmers A.G., Mudur S.P., Tongaonkar A., Stoddart S.K.F., Pattanaik S.N. "Antardrishti: Photo-realistic visualisation of Indian Heritage Sites". The 3rd World Archaeology Congress, Dehli, December 1994. 3. Chalmers A.G., Stoddart S.K.F. "The Interactive Visualisation of Maltese Prehistoric Temples". The 3rd World Archaeology Congress, Dehli, December 1994. 4. Stoddart S.K.F., Chalmers A.G. "Testing the Imponderables: The interface between ritual and science". The 3rd World Archaeology Congress, Dehli, December 1994. 5. Chalmers A.G., Tidmus J.P., Stoddart S.K.F., "Photo-Realistic Visualisation of Archaeological Sites". The 27th Meeting of the Canadian Archaeological Society, Edmonton, May 1994. 6. Tidmus J.P., Chalmers A.G., Miles R.M. "Distributed Monte Carlo Techniques for Interactive Photo-Realistic Image Synthesis". The 17th International Conference of the World Occam and Transputer Users Group, IOS Press, Bristol, April 1994. 7. Chalmers A.G., Stoddart S.K.F., Tidmus J.P., Miles R.M. "INSITE: An Interactive Visualisation System for Archaeological Sites". International Conference on Computer Applications and Quantitative Methods in Archaeology, Glasgow, March 1994. 8. Chalmers A.G., Tidmus J.P., Miles R.M. "Parallel Processing for Photo-Realistic Visualisation". International Workshop on Scientific Visualisation, Bombay, February 1994. 9. Bonanno A., Gouder T., Malone C., Stoddart S.K.F. "Monuments in an island society: the Maltese context", 2nd edition, World Archaeology, Vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 190-205, Academic Press 1990. 10. Malone c., Bonanno A., Gouder T., Stoddart S.K.F., Trump D. "Ancient religion in Malta", Scientific American, vol. 269, no. 6, pp. 76-83, December 1993. 11. Stoddart S.K.F., Bonanno A., Gouder T., Malone C. Trump D. "Cult in an island society: Prehistoric Malta in the Tarxien period", Cambridge Archaeological Journal, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 3-19, 1993 Extracts below have links to conference material: Project TwoResearch Project (Cambridge) Caroline Malone, David Barrowclough “Cult in Context: Comparative Approaches to Prehistoric and Ethnographic Religious Practices”An interdisciplinary conference MAGDALENE COLLEGE, Cambridge 7th–9th December 2006 New: CONFERENCE SCHEDULE Sponsored by the Cambridge Templeton Consortium (The Templeton Foundation), this conference will engage a range of archaeological and anthropological research in Sdiscussions aimed towards the understanding of prehistoric religion and spiritual activity. Presentations will include recent research from prehistoric Malta (the context of extraordinary prehistoric religious architecture and cult), prehistoric Europe and anthropology. Malta forms a focus for this conference, the culmination of a sponsored programme of research entitled `Explorations into the conditions of spiritual creativity in Prehistoric Malta'. Contributions are invited for presentation in sessions focused on the theory of cult and religion, agency, religious practice, art, architecture and cult places. A volume of the papers will be prepared for publication in 2007. SessionsSee the FULL CONFERENCE SCHEDULE HERE TimetableCall for papers—titles and abstracts: 1st August 2006 See also the list of CULT IN CONTEXT SEMINARS AccommodationRooms in College will be available for speakers only. The adjacent Arundel House Hotel offers good, reasonably priced rooms. Contact Details: Arundel House Hotel, Chesterton Road, Cambridge CB4 3AN. Tel. 01223 367701 WWW.ARUNDELHOUSEHOTELS.CO.UK Conference fee, Food and Refreshments Coffee and tea provided within the Conference fee for non-speakers (£30, £15 for full-time students), (daily rate: £12 per day, £7 for full-time students). An excellent buffet lunch and the Conference Dinner will be available at additional cost. Conference OrganisersCAROLINE MALONE and DAVID A. BARROWCLOUGH. ContactDavid Barrowclough Project ThreeResearch Projects (Durham) Dr Robin Skeates “An Archaeology of the Senses: Prehistoric Malta”A research project of the DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY. BackgroundThis book aims to establish a well-defined methodology for an archaeology of the senses, produce a challenging new synthesis of Maltese prehistoric archaeology, and provide a rich archaeological case-study for the new field of sensual culture studies. The introduction defines ‘sensual culture’ as peoples’ multi-sensory experiences and perceptions of the world and their construction of culturally diverse sense-based values and orders. Part 1 critically explores the history of prehistoric archaeology in Malta and its prioritising of the sense of sight at the expense of the other human senses. Part 2 presents a detailed archaeological reconstruction of the rich sensual culture of the prehistoric Maltese Temple Period (3800-2500 BC), with particular reference to four archaeologically-defined spatial contexts: the landscape, houses, temples, and caves. Part 3 explores the character and transformation of successive sensual cultures in prehistoric Malta. The conclusion then highlights a theme of power in relation to the long-term use and evaluation of the senses in prehistoric Malta.
Department of Archaeology, DurhamTimeline
Temples The Prehistoric Temples of Malta are probably Malta's greatest monuments. Built in monumental, megalithic blocks of stone they astound and challenge our perceptions of Prehistoric peoples. The main Deity would appear to be a goddess or 'fat lady' although distinct female features are rare and this may represent modern gender bias about large thighs and buttocks. The temples are set in a roughly D-Shaped arrangement with an external wall. The Temples, of which there are more than 20, date from approximately 3600BC-2500BC. Megaliths Megaliths are, literally, large stones. They were used for constructing large buildings before the invention of cement or mortar. Megalithic building traditions developed independently in different places and different times. Nevertheless, some features such as spiral motifs recur. This raises the intriguing question of the sources of such commonality. Do these 'form constants' represent universal features of the way the brain works? Or do they tap into a collective unconscious? Or do they reach out into a shared transpersonal domain? Malta has the oldest free-standing megalithic structures in the world, dating back six thousand years. There are twenty-five megalithic temples in Malta open to the public, including the astonishing Hal-Saflieni hypogeum, an underground temple. The latter is not strictly megalithic, as it is actually carved out of the solid rock rather than being constructed with hewn stones. A second large hypogeum has recently been discovered in Gozo. History Five thousand years ago, the Maltese archipelago was in the middle of one of the most remarkable cultural developments that took place during the prehistory of the Mediterranean. The inhabitants developed art forms that were distinctive, even unique. Working with the humble materials that the islands had to offer, they produced the unprecedented buildings that are known today as the Megalithic Temples of Malta. Extraordinary in their sophistication, these monumental buildings have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. A full figure that was discovered by Sir Themistocles Zammit during his epic excavations of the Tarxien Temples, which revolutionised the understanding of Maltese prehistory. Though often referred to as a priest, the identity of the figure may never be known. Nevertheless, the carefully groomed hairstyle is a reminder of the sophistication of Malta's prehistoric inhabitants. The soft Globigerina Limestone of the Maltese archipelago is very suitable for carving and sculpture. In spite of their limited toolkit, the Neolithic islanders became masters of stone carving, producing sculptures that remain unsurpassed in their effortless elegance and enigmatic sophistication. Very often, they represented themes from the surrounding environment, such as the series of silhouettes from Tarxien Some of the low-relief sculptures that have come down show mysterious designs that are difficult to decipher with certainty, such as the series of spirals. They are often described as abstract patterns whose main purpose was decoration rather than representation. It is equally possible that they too refer to specific elements in nature, such as water or the sea, which played such an important role in the life of the islanders. A miniature clay statuette indicates a naked, erect female figure. This statuette was discovered during the excavation of Hagar Qim in 1839. Despite its small size, the figure is superbly moulded, and is an eloquent document of an ageing female body. It remains a mystery if figures such as this represented living individuals, ancestors, mythical figures or even divinities. This clay figure returns the gaze of the modern viewer across five millennia, and still leaves the beholder awestruck by its quiet dignity. Understanding the Megalithic mind Exceedingly little is known about the culture of the people who built massive structures around the world about 6000 to 2000 years ago. In many cases, there are no written records. From the engineering and social organisation required actually to build the structures (sometimes involving specific stones being transported from other countries), and the accurate astronomical alignment of at least some of the structures, it is evident that these edifices were built by advanced civilisations. Yet we know essentially nothing of their beliefs and values. Even the use of the megalithic structures is unknown. As they do not appear to serve utilitarian functions, conventional archaeology designates them 'temples', but that is little more than a label. One plausible vector into understanding the megalithic mind is the prevalent and central use in their carvings and paintings of 'form constants' that also appear in visionary art that may be induced by entheogens or trance states. Spirals and lattices abound in key places. It is known that the megalithic people were perfectly capable of naturalistic art, as can be seen from their statuary. Yet, having invested phenomenal amounts of effort -- probably over generations -- in building their megalithic structures, they chose visionary form constants to have a central place. Another vector into the megalithic mind is the discovery of unusual acoustic features of the buildings. It is at least plausible that these could have been used for inducing or steering trance states. There is therefore growing belief that shamanism was one of the functions of these buildings. Possibly it was the main purpose. Given the amount of manpower that went into building them, we are led to the interesting conjecture that, for thousands of years, the earliest civilisations on Earth attached a central level of importance to shamanic, and possibly entheogenic experiences. One way of getting a better handle on this is to study and understand modern-day shamanic and entheogenic experiences and visionary art: Entheogens Are Psychotropic substances are those that affect the mind in some interesting way. Strictly speaking, domestic drugs such as caffeine and alcohol could be classed as mildly psychotropic substances, but the term is normally applied only to stronger chemicals, which might be artificial or natural. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), which was discovered by Albert Hoffman in 1938, is the most well-known potent psychotropic agent. Entheogens are psychotropic drugs that are believed to bring about a spiritual or mystical experience. This term is most ofen applied to plant derivatives (such as ayahuasca) that are employed in religious or shamanic rituals, rather than artificial chemicals. But the term can be applied to both kinds of drugs. The key idea is that the substance is used as part of a spiritual process rather than for recreation. "Entheogen" as a word was coined in 1979 by a group of ethnobotanists and scholars of mythology (Carl A. P. Ruck, Jeremy Bigwood, Danny Staples, Richard Evans Schultes, Jonathan Ott and R. Gordon Wasson). The literal meaning of the word is "that which causes God to be within an individual". Shamans make use of a variety of means of entering altered states of consciousness, and the use of entheogens is one such means. It is contended by some researchers, such as Benny Shanon (was supposed to be presenting at Metageum '07 but he fell ill with Whooping Cough) that entheogens were involved in the genesis of many religions. It is completely speculative, but nonetheless quite plausible, that the Neolithic creators and users of the Megalithic temples had knowledge of entheogens, and used them as part of whatever procedures they followed in the temples. Form constants are one clue to the imagination of those Neolithic people. In 1926 In Heinrich Klüver studied the visual hallucinations of people who had taken peyote, and noted four recurring forms: spirals, lattices, cobwebs, and tunnels, often combined with one another (such as a lattice spiralling into the distance). Other investigators found comparable form constants in hallucinations of users of other entheogens. Professor David Lewis-Williams has suggested that similar form constants are to be found in primitive rock art. Lewis-Williams distinguished six form constants: lattices, parallel lines, dots, zigzag lines crossing the field of vision, nested catenary curves, and filigrees or thin meandering lines. Entoptic phenomena are visual experiences that are produced internally by the eye or the brain, as opposed to being produced by light entering the eye. An everyday form or entoptic phenomena are phosphenes -- the coloured lights you see when you press your eyeball. Of more significance are the entoptic phenomena that are induced by psychotropic substances, or other altered states of consciousness. Modern artists, such as ALEX GREY incorporate entheogenic form constants in their work, and connect them to the iconography of mystical religions such as Buddhism. There may well be insights to be gained into the Megalithic mind by understanding the creative processes of such transformational artists. A central question concerning the content of spiritual visions -- be they induced by entheogens or other altered states of consciousness -- is this: Are these vision veridical, that is, do they represent some bona fide spiritual reality? Or they glorified entoptic phenomena, merely artefacts and by-products of the way the visual cortex of the brain is wired up? This question impacts science, philosophy, and art -- and it pertains directly to how we are to understand the Megalithic mind. Project 4Project 5
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